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Aly, G., Der Jahrhundertprozeß. Erich Mielke, die Morde auf dem Berliner Bülowplatz und die deutsche Strafjustiz, in Jansen, C. et al. (eds), Von der Aufgabe der Freiheit. Festschrift für Hans Mommsen, Berlin, de Gruyter 1995, pp. 549-62.
Anon. Tausend Bilder : Große Polizei Ausstellung in Berlin, Berlin, Gersbach, 1927.
Behr, R., Cop culture. Der Alltag des Gewaltmonopols, Wiesbaden, VS Verlag, 2000.
Behr, R., Polizeikultur. Routine, Rituale, Reflexionen. Bausteine zu einer Theorie der Praxis der Polizei, Wiesbaden, VS Verlag, 2006.
Bernhard, P., Repression transnational. Die Polizeizusammenarbeit zwischen Drittem Reich und italienischem Faschismus, in Schulte, W. (ed.), Die Polizei im NS Staat, Frankfurt a.M.,Verlag für Polizeiwissenschaft, 2009, pp. 407-24.
Bussemer, T., Propaganda und Populärkultur. Konstruierte Erlebniswelten im Nationalsozialismus, Wiesbaden, DUV, 2000.
Chiurco, G.A., Fascismo Senese. Martirologio toscano dalla nascita alla gloria di Roma, Siena, Tipografia Combattenti, 1923.
Daluege, K., Tag der deutschen Polizei, Berlin, Eher, 1934.
Daluege, K., Stellung und Aufgaben der Polizei im Dritten Reich, Berlin, Kameradschaftbund deutscher Polizeibeamten, 1936.
Dams, C. et al. (eds), “Dienst am Volk ?” Düsseldorfer Polizisten zwischen Demokratie und Diktatur, Frankfurt a.M., Verlag für Polizeiwissenschaft, 2007.
Donati, L., La Guardia regia, Storia contemporanea, 1977, 8, 3, pp. 441-87.
Dunnage, J., Policing Right-Wing Dictatorships : Some Preliminary Comparisons of Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany and Franco’s Spain, Crime, Histoire et Sociétés/Crime, History & Societies, 2006, 10, 1, pp. 93-122.
Dunnage, J., Mussolini’s Policemen. Behaviour, Ideology and Institutional Culture in Representation and Practice, Manchester and New York, Manchester University Press, 2012.
Falasca-Zamponi, S., Fascist Spectacle. The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2000.
Gentile, E., Fascism as Political Religion, Journal of Contemporary History, 1990, 25, 2-3, pp. 229-51.
Gentile, E., Il culto del littorio. La sacralizzazione della politica nell’Italia fascista, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 1993.
Hansen, W., Zwischen Selbstdarstellung und Propaganda Aktion. Verkehrserziehungswochen und Tage der Deutschen Polizei als Beispiel der polizeilichen Öffentlichkeitsarbeit im NS Staat, in Buhlan, H., Jung, W. (eds), Wessen Freund und wessen Helfer ? Die Kölner Polizei im Nationalsozialismus, Cologne, Emons, 2000, pp. 230-62.
Hermann, U., Nassen, U. (eds), Formative Ästhetik im Nationalsozialismus, Weinheim, Beltz, 1994.
Koschorke, H., Das Goldene Buch der deutschen Polizei, Jahrbuch der deutschen Polizei, Leipzig, 1936.
Loader, I., Policing and the Social : Questions of Symbolic Power, British Journal of Sociology, 1997, 48, 1, pp. 1-17.
Matthäus, J. et al. (eds), Ausbildungsziel Judenmord ? “Weltanschauliche Erziehung” von SS, Polizei und Waffen-SS im Rahmen der “Endlösung”, Frankfurt a. M., Fischer, 2003.
Oliva, G., Storia dei Carabinieri. Immagine e autorappresentazione dell’Arma (1814-1992), Milan, Leonardo, 1992.
Reichel, P., Der schöne Schein des Dritten Reiches. Faszination und Gewalt des Faschismus, München, Hanser, 1991.
Rossol, N., Beyond Law and Order ? Police History in Twentieth Century Europe and the Search for New Perspectives, Contemporary European History, 2013, 22, 2, pp. 319-30.
Saehrendt, C., Stellungskrieg der Denkmäler. Kriegerdenkmäler in Berlin der Zwischenkriegszeit, Bonn, Dietz, 2004.
Schloßmacher, N., “Kurzerhand die Farbe gewechselt”. Die Bonner Polizei im Nationalsozialismus, Bonn, Stadtarchiv Bonn, 2006.
Schmiechen-Ackermann, D. (ed.), Volksgemeinschaft : Mythos, wirkungsmächtige soziale Verheißung oder soziale Realität im Dritten Reich ?, Paderborn, Schöningh, 2012.
Schmidt, D., Schützen und Dienen. Polizisten im Ruhrgebiet in Demokratie und Diktatur 1919-1939, Essen, Klartext, 2008.
Schulte, W. (ed.), Die Polizei im NS-Staat, Frankfurt a.M., Verlag für Polizeiwissenschaft, 2009.
Tennsted, F., Wohltat und Interesse. Das Winterhilfswerk des Deutschen Volkes : Die Weimarer Vorgeschichte und ihre Instrumentalisierung durch das NS Regime, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 1987, 13, pp. 157-80.
Terhoeven, P., “Nicht spenden, opfern”. Spendenkampagnen im faschistischen Italien und im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland als Disziplinierungs- und Integrationsinstrument, in Reichardt, S., Nolzen, A. (eds), Beiträge zur Geschichte der Nationalsozialismus. Faschismus in Italien und Deutschland, Vol. 21, Göttingen, 2005, pp. 59-93.
Vondung, K., Magie und Manipulation. Ideologischer Kult und politische Religion des Nationalsozialismus, Göttingen, VR, 1972.
Weinhauer, K. Polizeigeschichte vom Zweiten Weltkrieg bis in die Bundesrepublik. Anmerkungen zu einigen Neuerscheinungen, IWK, 2003, 39, pp. 378-83.
Welch, D., Nazi Propaganda and the Volksgemeinschaft : Constructing a People’s Community, Journal of Contemporary History, 2004, 39, pp. 213-38.
Wildt, M., Volksgemeinschaft als Selbstermächtigung. Gewalt gegen Juden in der deutschen Provinz 1919-1939, Hamburg, HIS Verlag, 2007.
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Notes
For Nazi Germany, one of the first, but mainly descriptive, overviews of ‘police day’ is Hansen (2000, pp. 230-262).
For the purpose of this article, we decided to use the generic term ‘national community’. In Germany, ‘national community’ was a key concept for the Nazi regime and heavily drawn on in Nazi rhetoric. Furthermore, as the section on Nazi Germany will illustrate, historians have also used the term as an analytical tool to explain Nazi propaganda strategies and, more recently, to understand its integrative function allowing for different ways of individual participation in this national community. In Italy, the idea of a fascist or national community was expressed by the desired integration of the masses into the ‘totalitarian state’, thereby creating a ‘moral’ community governed by one ‘faith’ ; see Gentile (1993, p. 148).
In Nazi Germany, for example, the police faced recruitment difficulties, as young people preferred to join the armed forces.
See Rossol (2013, pp. 319-30). For Germany, more general criticism that police history is not up-to-date with new methodological approaches in the writing of history is voiced by Weinhauer (2003, pp. 378-83). Sociologists were much quicker to examine symbols and police culture as part of policing. See Loader (1997, pp. 1-17) ; Behr (2000, 2006).
For studies of the use of symbols and festivities in fascist Italy, see Gentile (1990, pp. 229-51) ; Falasca-Zamponi (2000). For Nazi Germany, see Vondung (1972) ; Hermann, Nassen (1994) ; Reichel (1991) suggests in his study that Nazi festivities were meant as diversion from the brutal policy of the regime.
For a comparative overview of policing which includes the topic of political integration, see Dunnage (2006, pp. 93-122). Research on the relationship and co-operation between the Nazi and fascist police has been published by Bernhard (2009, pp. 407-24). Within the historiography of repression under the individual regimes, approaches to the political integration of the police include Dunnage (2012) ; Matthäus et al. (2003) ; Schulte (2009). For recent local studies of the Nazi police see, for example, Dams et al. (2007) ; Schloßmacher (2006).
Research on the Italian police contributing to this article was partly financed by a British Academy Small Research Grant. The present analysis of the Festa della Polizia and other rituals develops a theme previously examined at length in Dunnage (2012, esp. Chapter 2).
‘La festa della polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1932, 9, pp. 171-73. Footage of the Festa della Polizia, conserved by the Archivio Storico Luce, Rome, may be viewed on-line http://www.archivioluce.com/. For the 1932 celebrations, see Giornale Luce B0157.
‘La festa della polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1933, 10, pp. 165-68 ; Giornale Luce B0355 [http://www.archivioluce.com/].
Documentation relating to this is scarce, but an article in the police journal Il magistrato dell’ordine refers to ‘police day conceived and desired by His Excellency Bocchini’. See ‘La festa della polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1933, 10, pp. 165-68.
For a detailed discussion of this, see Falasca-Zamponi (2000, Chapter 3).
For a discussion of this aspect of fascist propaganda, see Oliva (1992, p. 187).
See, for example, the article on the participation of Himmler, alongside the head of the SA, Reinhard Heydrich, and the head of the Ordnungspolizei, Kurt Daluege at the 1936 celebrations. ‘I Capi della Polizia Tedesca a Roma’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1936, 13, p. 135.
Giulio Altamura, ‘Una forza dell’Impero’, Il giornale di Genova, 18 October 1936, reproduced in Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1936, 13, p. 134.
Ibid.
For a more detailed discussion, see Dunnage (2012, pp. 9-15).
There is some continuity in personnel, structures and tasks between the Agenti and previous police forces of the Interior Ministry. Such continuity was temporarily interrupted in December 1922 by the abolition of the then Interior Ministry force, the Regie Guardie (Royal Guard), and the entrusting of their tasks to a special unit of the Carabinieri (though personnel of this unit came from the disbanded Royal Guard) ; but what in many respects marked a re-constitution of the police force of the Interior Ministry in 1925 was propagandised as the creation of a ‘new’ police.
Giornale Luce B1184, 20 October 1937 [http://www.archivioluce.com/].
In this regard the ban on Party membership since 1925 was lifted for Interior Ministry Police officials and office employees in 1932 and for Agenti di Pubblica Sicurezza in 1934. Thereafter, membership was essential for admission to the police or promotion.
‘I Questori del Regno’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1933, 10, p. 168.
Documents in the files of the Interior Ministry Police show how, like the rest of the population, police personnel were ‘mobilized’ to give up their wedding rings. The Questore of Siena, for example, invited the men under his command to undersign their willingness to offer gold and silver to the national cause (Archivio di Stato di Siena, Questura, F.161, Cat E.3, sf. Raccolta fra il personale di PS d’oro e di argento di offrire alla Patria).
‘Cospicua offerta della Questura di Roma all’E.O.A’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1936, 13, p. 134.
For a detailed comparative analysis, see Terhoeven (2005, pp. 59-93). She argues that while the Nazi regime engaged the public in regular donations to the Winter Relief Fund, in Mussolini’s Italy donation campaigns mainly focused on mobilising the nation in times of war.
‘XVIII Ottobre 1928’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1928, 5, pp. 173-74.
Il Messaggero, 19 October 1933, reproduced in ‘La festa della polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1933, 10, pp. 165-67.
Emilio Saracini, ‘Nel decennale fascista’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1932, 9, p. 170.
Altamura’s article ‘Una forza dell’Impero’ in the Giornale di Genova, cited above, stressed, for example, the Interior Ministry Police’s ‘fraternal collaboration’ with the regime’s other police forces.
In 1936, for example, Bocchini managed to prevent police personnel from joining the Party Militia en masse, following the Fascist Party’s announcement that all its members were eligible for this. See Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Ministero dell’Interno, Direzione Generale di Pubblica Sicurezza, Divisione Personale di Pubblica Sicurezza, Affari Generali, versamento 1961, b. 20, f. Funzionari ed agenti non debbono essere iscritti alla MVSN.
‘XVIII Ottobre 1928’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1928, 5, pp. 173-74.
Representatives of the Fasci Giovanili, Balilla, Piccole Italiane, and after-work representatives of the Party district headquarters were present at the 1933 celebrations in Rome. See ‘La festa della polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1933, 10, pp. 165-68.
Reports of regular inspections and a large number of investigations of police stations and their personnel can be accessed at the Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Ministero dell’Interno, Direzione Generale di Pubblica Sicurezza, Divisione Personale di Pubblica Sicurezza, Affari Generali.
Ulderico Caputo, ‘La Polizia e lo Sport’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1935, 12, p. 71.
Hansen (2000, pp. 244-62).
Bundesarchiv Berlin (herafter BArch Berlin), R19/389, (no page number), letter K. Daluege to H. Himmler, 25.7.1938.
BArch Bildarchiv, Plakt. 003-056-064, Feb.1942 Slovenia.
BArch Bildarchiv, 1939 : Plakt. 003-016-050, 003-016-047/ 1941-42, Plakt. 003-016-121, 003-016-122, 003-025-007.
Aufrufe zum Tag der deutschen Polizei, Der deutsche Polizeibeamte, 2, 15.1.1935, p. 42.
BArch Berlin, R19/389, Rundschreiben d. Reichsführer SS und Polizei nr.108, December1936.
Ibid.
For the Weimar Republic, the Great Police Exhibition in Berlin in 1926 illustrates the official efforts to improve the image of the police in the Weimar years stressing the police’s role as friendly and helpful.
For Nazi Germany, see the recommendations made by leading police officials for the programs of the ‘police day’ in BArch Berlin, R19/389 (no page number), Chief of the Prussian gendarmerie to the Reich Minister of the Interior. 15.10.1934 and BArch Berlin, R19/389, Notice nr.108 Dec.1936 regarding Tag der deutschen Polizei.
Images and short reports on different activities featuring in the 1934 Tag der deutschen Polizei can be found in a book edited by Daluege (1934). Newspapers and journals published similar images and stories on the success of the day.
BArch Berlin, R19/389, Rundschreiben nr. 108, December1936.
Der deutsche Polizeibeamte, 15.1.1935, 2, p. 42 ; ‘Der Tag der deutschen Polizei’ and ‘Zum Tag der Deutsche Polizei’, Der deutsche Polizeibeamte, 15.3.1936, 6, p. 210, p. 245.
‘Die Polizei hilft’, Die Polizei, 5.2.1931, 3,p. 49 ; ‘Kinderspeisung durch die staatliche Polizei Gladbach’,Preußische Polizeibeamten Zeitung, 13.2.1932, 7, p. 122 ; ‘Winterhilfe der Stadt Hannover’, Preußische Polizeibeamten Zeitung, 6.2.1932, 6, p. 103 ; ‘Kinder in Not’, Preußische Polizeibeamten Zeitung, 23.1.1932, 4, p. 68 ; ‘Die Polizei hilft : Kinderspeisung durch die Schupo in Oberhausen’, Die Polizei, 20.6.1931, 11, p. 273. For the beginning of winter aid in the Weimar Republic, see Tennsted (1987, pp. 157-80).
See the piece by Terhoeven (2005), though she does not explicitly concentrate on the police.
BArch Berlin, R19/389, Regierungsrat Thielen, 6.11.1933.
BArch Berlin, R19/389, Letters between Daluege and Schwarz.
For the money collected, see Daluege (1934, pp.134-35) ; BArch Berlin R19/389, letter to Himmler 21.1.1937 ; ‘Dank an die deutsche Polizei’, Der deutsche Polizeibeamte, 15.1.1935, 2, p. 42.
Terhoeven (2005, pp. 86-88).
Daluege (1934, p. 20).
Schmidt (2008, p. 439).
Wildt (2007) suggests that the Volksgemeinschaft was envisaged and acted on from below and was not just a top down concept. Recent edited collections have broadened the focus on the participative element of the Volksgemeinschaft without creating a consensus among historians concerning the usefulness of the term as an analytical tool. For an overview on the recent debates see Schmiechen-Ackermann (2012, pp. 15-36).
For an insightful focus on commemorative practices regarding the police in the Ruhr area, see Schmidt (2008, pp. 387-94).
‘Mahnmale deutscher Polizeigeschichte’, Die Polizei, 5.11.1936, 21, pp. 442-44.
Die Polizei, 20.2.1933, 4, p. 77 ; ‘Polizeibanner auf Halbmast’, Preußische Polizeibeamten Zeitung, 4.2.1933, 5, p. 127 ; ‘Gedenktafel für Polizeiwachtmeister Zauritz’, Die Polizei, 20.12.1933, 24, p.569 ; Goebbels cited in Ackermann (1990, p. 108).
The book was kept at the police institute Charlottenburg. ‘Goldenes Buch für gefallenen Polizeibeamte’, Die Polizei, 20.8.1933, 16, p. 384. Interestingly, the Metropolitan Police introduced a similar book in 1935 (and dated it back to 1920). See also RdErl d. PMdI, 29.6.1933 in Ministerial Blatt für die preußische innere Verwaltung, 5.7.1933, 94, 36.
P. Riege, ‘Aus vergilbten Aktenblättern’, Die Polizei, 5.10.1927, p. 408.
Koschorke (1936, p. 154).
See the article by Aly (1995, pp. 549-62) who mainly examines the court trails that followed.
Saehrendt (2004, pp. 140-44).
Der Deutsche Polizeibeamte, 15.10.1934, 20, pp. 764-65.
Ibid., p. 762.
Saehrendt (2004, pp. 142-45).
Photographs in Der deutsche Polizeibeamte, 01.02.1937, 3.
Photographs in Der deutsche Polizeibeamte, 01.07.1937 ; 13 Der deutsche Polizeibeamte, 15.08.1937, 6.
‘Die Schutzpolizei Hamburg gedenkt ihrer im Kampf gegen den Kommunismus gefallenen Kameraden’, Die Polizei, 20.11.1934, 22, pp. 460-61 ; ‘Aus der Geschichte der Hamburger Polizei’, Der deutsche Polizeibeamte, 15.01.1935, 2, pp. 46-47.
‘Ehrung der Gefallenen der Essener Polizei’, Der deutsche Polizeibeamte, 15.04.1934, 8, pp. 283-85. BArch Berlin, R19/379, speech no.16 ‘Einweihung des Polizei Ehrenmals in Dortmund’ 17.11.1935 ; R19/380, ‘Ansprache für die Gefallenen der Ruhrkämpfe in Bochum’ 17.04.1937.
BArch Berlin, R19/389, (no page number), 8.4.1937.
‘Die Schutzpolizei Hamburg gedenkt ihrer im Kampf gegen den Kommunismus gefallenen Kameraden’, Die Polizei, 20.11.1934, 22, p. 460.
BArch Berlin, R19/379, Einweihung des Polizei Ehrenmals in Dortmund 17.11.1935 ; BArch Berlin, R19/380, Ansprache für die Gefallenen der Ruhrkämpfe in Bochum 17.04.1937.
Printed in Daluege (1936, p. 6).
Schmidt (2008, pp. 328-29).
Die deutsche Polizei, 15.10.1939, 19.
K. Daluege, ‘Einleitung : Die Bewährungsprobe. Die Ordnungspolizei im ersten Kriegsjahr’, Taschenkalender für die Schutzpolizei des Reiches u. Gemeinden u. Verwaltungspolizei 1941, p. 10.
Saehrendt (2004, p. 144).
‘Martirologio della Polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1924, 1, p. 59.
‘Martirologio della Polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1926, 3, p. 134.
‘Martirologio della Polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1936, 13, p. 143.
Mussolini’s initial demotion of the Interior Ministry Police is demonstrated by the abolition in December 1922 of its police corps, the Royal Guard (Guardia Regia), which was partly attributed to the corps’ close association with previous Liberal governments. Only in 1925 did Mussolini decide to invest the Interior Ministry Police as the main police organ responsible for defending the regime, relegating the Carabinieri to rural areas and limiting the powers of the Party Militia. See Donati (1977, pp. 468-87).
Although policemen and squadristi had often collaborated in oppressing the socialist movement in the years leading up to the March on Rome, such action was mainly illegal (often leading to punishment) and, therefore, never part of an official institutional discourse.
See Chiurco (1923).
‘Martirologio della Polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1936, 13, pp. 136-43.
E. Saracini, ‘La festa della polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1936, 13, pp. 133-34.
E. Saracini, ‘La festa della polizia’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1936, 13, pp. 133-34 (n.1).
‘La 2a Divisione Speciale di Polizia a Napoli’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1936, 13, pp. 62-63.
The inauguration of the Metropolitan Police of Naples began with a commemoration at the city mausoleum to honour those who had fallen in the First World War.
‘Una simpatica cerimonia nella Scuola di Caserta e visita di S.E. Bocchini alla Questura di Napoli’, Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1936, 13, pp. 63-64.
Given the obligatory nature of Party membership for all state personnel from 1932, it took on a strong meal-ticket characteristic.
See Dunnage (2012, Chapter 3).
See R. Di Rienzo,‘Burocrazia problema di Stato’, reproduced in Il magistrato dell’ordine, 1930, 7, 9, pp. 130-31, originally published in Il pubblico impiego, 14 July 1930, 4, 13, 1, p. 8 ; E. Lolini, ‘L’iscrizione alle Associazioni fasciste’, Le forze civili, March 1934, 4, 3, p. 1.
Falasca-Zamponi (2000, p. 10) argues that “it is the emphasis on form (intended as appearance, effects, orderly arrangement) that helps to explain fascism’s cultural-political development.”
Welch (2004, pp. 213-38) suggests that historians have to be careful not to equate the considerable efforts put into Nazi propaganda with its results. Bussemer (2000) also stresses the importance of looking at the reception of Nazi propaganda.
In regard to this aspect of rituals of donation, see Teerhoeven (2005, pp. 59-92).
Activities such as public concerts, sports competitions and showing police dogs and horses to children were (and still are) commonly featured in public image campaigns of the German police.
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